Judaism combines belief, ritual, and communal life, rooted in the covenantal relationship between God and the Israelites. Its practice encompasses religious law (halakha), ethics, festivals, dietary restrictions, and worship, traditionally centered on the Torah and later rabbinic interpretations. With diverse expressions including Rabbinic, Karaite, and later denominational forms such as Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform Judaism, it remains both a religion and a civilizational identity.

circa 2000 BCE

The origins of Judaism are traced to the early Israelite religion of the late second millennium BCE, distinguished by the worship of Yahweh as national deity. The destruction of the First Temple in 586 BCE by the Babylonians marked a turning point, leading to codification of scripture and emphasis on Torah study. The Second Temple period (516 BCE–70 CE) saw sectarian developments, including Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes, culminating in Rabbinic Judaism after the Roman destruction of the Temple. In Late Antiquity and the medieval period, Judaism spread through diaspora communities, adapting to diverse cultural contexts under Islamic and Christian rule. Modernity brought both emancipation and persecution, from Enlightenment reforms to the Shoah (Holocaust). In the contemporary period, Judaism is practiced worldwide, with the modern state of Israel and North America as primary centers.

circa 2000 BCE

Judaism is defined by uncompromising monotheism, a covenantal ethic expressed in commandments (mitzvot), and emphasis on study and interpretation of sacred texts. Its liturgical calendar centers on Shabbat and festivals such as Passover, Shavuot, and Yom Kippur. Communal identity is maintained through practices of law, ritual circumcision, dietary rules (kashrut), and lifecycle observances. Unlike many religions, Judaism integrates peoplehood and religion, often inseparable in defining Jewish belonging.

circa 2000 BCE

The foundational text is the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh), particularly the Torah, regarded as divine revelation. Post-biblical authority rests on the Mishnah (circa 200 CE) and Talmud (completed by circa 500–600 CE), which codified oral traditions and interpretations. Medieval Jewish scholarship produced legal codifications such as Maimonides’ Mishneh Torah and the Shulchan Aruch. Mystical traditions, especially Kabbalah, introduced new theological dimensions, while modern movements developed alternative liturgies and commentaries reflecting their theological stances.

circa 2000 BCE

Archaeology provides critical evidence for the historical development of Judaism, clarifying contexts of biblical texts and illuminating religious practice. Excavations in the Southern Levant, particularly Iron Age sites such as Jerusalem, Lachish, and Tel Dan, reveal the evolution from polytheistic Canaanite practices to Yahwistic monotheism. The Babylonian destruction of 586 BCE is corroborated by destruction layers in Jerusalem, supporting biblical accounts. Second Temple period archaeology is especially rich: the Dead Sea Scrolls from Qumran illuminate sectarian diversity, while remains of synagogues in Galilee and the Golan Heights attest to evolving communal worship outside the Temple.

Artifacts such as ossuaries, menorah carvings, and ritual baths (mikva’ot) illustrate religious practice in the late Second Temple and early rabbinic periods. In the diaspora, archaeology of synagogues in Dura-Europos (Syria), Sardis (Asia Minor), and Ostia (Italy) highlights how Jewish communities adapted architecturally and artistically while retaining distinctive religious symbols. Medieval Jewish quarters and cemeteries across Europe and the Middle East further document communal resilience under diverse conditions. Modern Israeli archaeological activity has integrated biblical archaeology with broader Near Eastern contexts, emphasizing Judaism’s historical development within wider cultural networks.