Emerging after the end of the Pleistocene, the Neolithic was defined not just by stone tool use, but by the introduction of farming economies that replaced or supplemented hunting and gathering. This transformation occurred independently in several world regions—such as the Fertile Crescent, East Asia, Mesoamerica, and sub-Saharan Africa—each with its own domesticated plants, animals, and settlement patterns. The onset of the Neolithic is closely tied to the so-called Neolithic Revolution, a gradual but profound change that enabled population growth, surplus food production, and increasingly complex social structures. By the end of the period, many societies had developed craft specialization, long-distance trade networks, and monumental architecture, setting the stage for the Chalcolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages.

circa 10,000- 2,000 BCE

Technology
The Neolithic toolkit, the defining characteristic of the Stone Age, reflects a refinement of stone-working techniques, with polished axes, adzes, and sickles replacing or enhancing chipped flint implements. Groundstone technology allowed tools to be more durable and efficient, particularly for woodcutting and farming tasks. Pottery, often decorated with incised or painted designs, emerged as both a practical and cultural innovation—facilitating cooking, food storage, and transport. Textile production advanced through the use of spindle whorls and looms, enabling communities to produce woven garments and sacks. Innovations in food processing, such as querns and mortars for grinding grain, demonstrate a shift toward cereal-based diets.

Economy
The Neolithic economy was anchored in the shift from foraging to farming, which fundamentally altered how communities interacted with their environment. Agriculture allowed for the cultivation of staple crops—such as wheat and barley in the Near East, millet and rice in East Asia, and maize in the Americas—on a scale that could support permanent settlements. Animal domestication complemented plant cultivation, with species like sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs providing meat, milk, wool, and traction power. The ability to store surpluses not only reduced the risk of famine but also enabled population growth and seasonal planning. Fishing, wild plant gathering, and occasional hunting continued in many regions, but as supplementary activities rather than the economic foundation.

Architecture
The sedentary lifestyle of the Neolithic fostered new approaches to shelter and communal planning. Houses built from mud brick, wattle-and-daub, or stone often featured rectangular floor plans, allowing for more efficient interior organization than earlier round huts. In some areas, such as Çatalhöyük, buildings were tightly packed with shared walls, reflecting both spatial constraints and social cohesion. Floors were sometimes plastered and renewed periodically, indicating a sense of permanence and maintenance. Storage facilities, hearths, and workspaces were integrated into domestic structures, while some sites show evidence of specialized communal or ceremonial buildings that foreshadow later public architecture.

Social Organization
Agricultural stability enabled larger, more complex communities, which required new forms of coordination and governance. Leadership often emerged informally through kinship networks or community elders, though archaeological evidence from burials and differential house sizes suggests that some societies experienced growing social stratification. Surplus production facilitated craft specialization—potters, stoneworkers, and textile producers could dedicate time to their trades rather than subsistence farming. Inter-settlement exchange networks expanded, distributing raw materials such as obsidian, flint, or marine shells across significant distances, which in turn reinforced alliances and cultural connections.

Ritual Life
Neolithic ritual life was deeply embedded in both domestic and communal spaces. Burials, sometimes placed beneath house floors, indicate an enduring connection between the living and the dead, perhaps to reinforce lineage ties and territorial claims. Grave goods—ranging from simple beads to elaborately crafted tools—suggest beliefs in an afterlife or the symbolic importance of status. Figurines depicting animals or human forms, often interpreted as fertility symbols, appear alongside decorated walls and carved reliefs, hinting at a rich symbolic system. Large-scale ceremonial sites, such as Göbekli Tepe (though predating the full Neolithic package in some respects), demonstrate that collective ritual gatherings and monument building were possible even before urbanization.

circa 10,000- 2,000 BCE

One of the most significant Neolithic sites is Çatalhöyük in central Anatolia (circa 7400–6000 BCE). This densely populated settlement featured interconnected mud-brick houses without streets; inhabitants entered their homes through roof openings. The interiors often contained wall paintings, reliefs, and symbolic installations, suggesting a rich symbolic and ritual life intertwined with domestic space. The community’s reliance on both agriculture and hunting reflects a transitional economy in which farming was dominant but traditional subsistence strategies persisted.

Another prominent site is Jericho in the Jordan Valley (occupied from circa 9600 BCE), often cited as one of the world’s earliest continuously inhabited towns. Its Pre-Pottery Neolithic phases included massive walls and a stone tower, possibly serving both defensive and ceremonial purposes. These constructions demonstrate that large-scale communal projects and coordinated labor were already achievable well before the advent of metal tools.