Occupying an entire insula at the intersection of two major streets, the Stabian Baths illustrate the architectural standardization and civic role of Roman bathhouses during the late Republic and early Empire. Over successive phases, the complex evolved from a modest palaestra with limited bathing spaces into an elaborate, symmetrical facility with distinct men’s and women’s sections, decorative programs, and advanced heating systems. Their continuous adaptation—culminating in post-earthquake renovations prior to the Vesuvian eruption of 79 CE—attests to their prominence in Pompeian daily life and their function as a model for provincial bathing culture across the empire.

circa 125 BCE

Early Use of the Site (Prior to circa 300 BCE)
Before the construction of the formal bath complex, the area now occupied by the Stabian Baths functioned primarily as a palaestra—a space dedicated to athletic training and exercise. Archaeological evidence indicates the presence of small rooms to the north, equipped with individual hip baths, suggesting limited bathing facilities integrated into a predominantly athletic environment. These early features likely served a local elite and point to the increasing importance of communal hygiene and physical culture in pre-Roman Italic communities.

Oscan Period (circa 125 BCE)
In circa 125 BCE, a significant transformation occurred when a local magistrate commissioned the first formal bath building on the site. This act of civic patronage is documented by a sundial inscribed in Oscan (now in Archaeological Museum of Naples), recovered from the premises, which commemorates the construction. The bath complex at this stage expanded to occupy approximately half an insula (city block), indicating its centrality to urban life in Pompeii.

The design included two separate bathing suites, each furnished with an apodyterium (changing room), tepidarium (warm room), and caldarium (hot room), along with a communal latrine. The men’s section also featured two laconica (dry heat sweat rooms), and a rectangular palaestra bordered on three sides by Doric porticoes. Water was sourced from a well on-site and stored in a rooftop cistern, reflecting a localized hydraulic strategy before integration into the city-wide aqueduct system.

Early Roman Period (After 80 BCE)
Following Pompeii’s formal incorporation as a Roman colony during the Republican period in 80 BCE, the Stabian Baths underwent major expansion under the supervision of the duoviri Caius Uulius and Publius Aninius. Their contributions are recorded in a dedicatory inscription. During this renovation, the two original laconica were demolished, and the palaestra was extended westward into the vacated triangular area.

The eastern portico was dismantled and repositioned further west, facilitating the addition of new architectural features. A new, more architecturally ambitious laconicum was constructed, partially integrated into the tepidarium. It featured a concrete dome and four semi-circular corner niches, representing an advanced Roman spatial and thermal design.

Adjacent to it, the destrictarium—a room specifically used for scraping the body with strigils—was constructed in the northern portico. Notably, this is the only confirmed example of a destrictarium in the Roman world, underscoring Pompeii’s role as an important site for the development of Roman bathing culture. The placement of these new rooms, along with the involvement of elected officials in their creation, strongly suggests that the baths were under public ownership.

Augustan Period
Around the transition from Republic to Empire (circa late 1st Century BCE to early 1st century CE), under Augustus, the Stabian Baths were connected to Pompeii’s aqueduct system, allowing for a regular supply of running water for the first time. This infrastructural improvement marked a turning point in the sophistication and capacity of the bathing complex.

During this period, the adjacent residential structure west of the palaestra was likely demolished to accommodate new leisure and bathing features. These included an open-air natatio (swimming pool) flanked by two nymphaea—ornamental fountains with shallow pools—likely used for foot washing prior to swimming. A bowling alley and an additional changing room were also added. On the northern side of the complex, exedrae (semi-open rooms used for socializing or rest) were constructed, facing the palaestra and further emphasizing the integration of athletic, hygienic, and recreational functions.

Circa 62-79 CE Period
The catastrophic earthquake of 62 CE caused substantial damage to the Stabian Baths, as it did to much of Pompeii. In the aftermath, the complex was not only repaired but also significantly enlarged and restructured, enhancing its luxury and public appeal. The main entrance was likely redesigned during this phase, replacing a smaller earlier entry with a grander and more formal access point.

The earlier laconicum appears to have been repurposed into a frigidarium (cold room), and the original destrictarium was removed to enable the expansion of the caldarium. A new destrictarium was constructed in the southwestern corner of the palaestra, maintaining the necessary hygienic sequence of bathers’ routine. The building works reflect an ongoing effort to modernize and embellish the facility to meet evolving Roman standards of comfort and public hygiene.

At the time of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE, the Stabian Baths were at least partially closed, with some areas still undergoing repair or renovation. This corresponds to a broader trend across Pompeii, where post-earthquake reconstruction remained incomplete at the moment of the city’s destruction. Despite this, the Stabian Baths stand as one of the earliest and most complex bath structures in the Roman world, offering a unique archaeological record of both Italic and Roman architectural, social, and hydraulic evolution.

circa 125 BCE

Layout
The Stabian Baths occupy a prominent position in Pompeii, situated at the junction of two major thoroughfares: the Via dell’Abbondanza to the south and the Via Stabiana to the east—the latter giving the complex its modern name. The baths encompass the entirety of the insula they stand on. To the west, they are bounded by the Vicolo del Lupanare, and to the north by the House of P. Vedius Siricus. A series of shops originally lined the street-facing perimeter, a typical urban feature integrating commercial and public functions. As was standard in Roman bath architecture, the complex was divided into separate facilities for men and women.

In their final phase of use, the baths presented a highly organized and articulated plan. The main entrance (inspect) to the men's section lay on the Via dell’Abbondanza, leading through a vestibule into the palaestra, a spacious open-air exercise yard. Two additional entrances for men existed: one opened directly into the apodyterium from within the insula, and another from the Vicolo del Lupanare. Along the right (eastern) side of the palaestra stood a colonnade (inspect), which gave access to the men's bath complex in sequence: first the apodyterium, followed by the tepidarium, the caldarium, and finally the frigidarium. These rooms are all rectangular, aligned parallel to one another under barrel vaults, in what is known architecturally as the “single-axis row type” arrangement—a common and influential plan seen across the Roman Empire.

The heating of both bath suites was achieved through a hypocaust system—the oldest surviving example of its kind in the Roman world. A single furnace, located between the men’s and women’s caldaria, heated the air beneath the floors, which were suspended on pillars of terracotta tiles. In the furnace room were three water tanks: a hot tank directly above the furnace, a warm tank, and a cold tank, facilitating precise temperature control throughout the complex.

circa 125 BCE

Palaestra
The palaestra of the Stabian Baths was relatively large. On the left (western) side of the palaestra was a rectangular natatio (swimming pool), flanked by two rooms functioning as nymphaea, which featured garden-themed frescoes painted above a marble dado. In the southwestern corner, adjacent to one of the nymphaea, was the destrictarium (inspect), a room used for preparing the body for physical activity and for cleansing afterwards with strigils. Its exterior wall was decorated with elaborate painted stucco. On the same side of the palaestra was a rare Roman-era bowling alley consisting of nine lanes; two stone bowling balls were recovered from this space. A communal latrine was located in the northern section of the complex.

circa 125 BCE

Men's Apodyterium
The men's apodyterium was paved in gray marble, edged with basalt. Its white-painted walls were surmounted by a vaulted ceiling embellished with intricate stucco reliefs, structured into octagonal, hexagonal, and quadrangular panels. These featured motifs such as cupids, trophies, rosettes, and Dionysian imagery.

circa 125 BCE

Frigidarium
The frigidarium, accessible from the vestibule between the entrance to the men's section and the apodyterium, a round chamber formerly used as a laconicum, was crowned by a dome with a central oculus that admitted light. Its central basin was lined in white marble and surrounded by a narrow marble walkway. The walls were inset with four niches housing fountains and painted with a garden scene—lush vegetation, birds, sculptures, and vases set against a sky-blue background.

circa 125 BCE

Tepidarium
The tepidarium was heated by hot air that circulated through the raised floor as well through the cavaties in the walls. At one end of this chamber was an additional basin (inspect), which the archaeologist August Mau interpreted as a "moderately cold bath" for winter use by those unwilling to plunge into the colder frigidarium. The ceiling of the men's tepidarium bore comparable decorative treatment.

circa 125 BCE

Caldarium
The caldarium contained a labrum—a circular cold-water basin commonly found in Roman hot rooms, similar to that in the Forum Baths—positioned at one end; only its base (inspect) is partially preserved today.

circa 125 BCE

Women's Section
The women’s section of the bath had two entrances: one facing the Vicolo del Lupanare, above which the word mulier (“woman”) was discovered painted during initial excavations, and the other facing the Via Stabiana. The layout mirrored that of the men’s section but was smaller in scale and more modest in decoration. It consisted of an apodyterium, a tepidarium, and a caldarium, but lacked both a frigidarium and a palaestra. Instead, a cold-water basin was placed at one end of the apodyterium. The caldarium included a marble-lined alveus (bathing basin) with a sloped backrest and a large elevated labrum used for tepid rinsing. During excavation, the remains of a bronze single-person bath and bronze benches were uncovered in this area.